Sergio Tellez (Colombia), Renzo Ruiz (Perú), Sherin Limas (Perú) y Óscar Obando (Ecuador)
Génesis de la figura de la Expropiación Indirecta en el Arbitraje de Inversiones
Históricamente, los tratados bilaterales de inversión no incluían definiciones detalladas sobre la expropiación indirecta; no obstante lo cual se incluían referencias a los efectos de ciertas medidas, con descripciones de expropiación indirecta como “medidas que tienen efectos equivalentes a la nacionalización o expropiación”, lo que conllevaba a que los tribunales arbitrales se centren en los efectos de la medida en análisis; la definición y las condiciones que la configuran terminan estructurando caso por caso.
Una expropiación comprendida de manera general es “un medio por el cual el Estado impone a un particular la cesión de derechos de su propiedad” (Fraga, p.374-376). Por otro lado, conocemos dos tipos de expropiaciones específicas, la directa e indirecta, esta última será desarrollada con base a lo tratado en los siguientes párrafos.
La expropiación indirecta comprendida hoy en día, se puede resumir como la adquisición forzosa de un bien sin la necesidad de la transferencia de dominio, ocasionando pérdidas totales o considerables sobre la propiedad. Para caracterizarla como forzosa se debe considerar el impacto de la medida sobre la propiedad y la naturaleza de la misma.
Varios han sido los casos en Latinoamérica que han resuelto que existe expropiación indirecta por parte de un Estado, para con el inversionista. La característica general, pero no la única, por la que ha sido desarrollada este tipo de expropiación, es por medio de la creación de impuestos o tributos. Aunque, por principio no es directa si se analiza de forma tributaria, la ley que es creada por parte de los Estados, quita la propiedad del derecho del inversionista.
Es así, que en varios laudos en los que se comprobó que existió una expropiación indirecta, se tuvo como consecuencia el resarcimiento por los daños causados. En diferentes casos como: Burlington c. Ecuador, Oxi c., Tesoro Petroleum Corporation c. Trinidad y Tobago, Ecuador; casos en los que se decidió que la creación de una ley que retuviera precios excesivos del precio variable, la expropiación de las concesiones y terminación unilateral de los contratos, constituían perjuicios para las compañías inversoras.
Como criterio de indemnización cuando existe expropiación indirecta, se ha utilizado el estándar Chorzow de: adecuada, pronta y eficaz (Alemania C. Polonia, Corte Permanente de Justicia Internacional). Conforme a los requisitos, adecuada, al monto proporcional de la propiedad; pronta, para no dejar impago al propietario y proceder conforme requiera el Estado y; eficaz, para que sea verificable la indemnización (Faya, p.240)
Dentro del caso TOPCO, el tribunal arbitral determinó que el cumplimiento y la restitución es “la primera forma de reparación” y que dicha restitución íntegra, es la sanción común para el incumplimiento de las obligaciones contractuales. (Texaco Overseas Petroleum Co. c. Libyan Arab Republic). Con este argumento y decisión por parte del tribunal se declaró la nulidad de los actos de poder público y restitución de pozos petroleros expropiados.
Esos daños pueden ser resultado del incumplimiento de las obligaciones contractuales del Estado, en el caso AGIP c. Congo. se resolvió que: “la expropiación por o atribuible a un Estado de la propiedad de un extranjero da lugar según el derecho internacional a una obligación de indemnizar (…) si la expropiación es formal o de hecho”.
La expropiación indirecta se desarrolló de manera extensa y clara en el caso Duke Energy International Perú Investments No. 1 Ltd. c. República de Perú, mismo que describe de forma detallada las características de la misma y sus posibles efectos. Estos señalan la expropiación directa e indirecta, consecuencia de incumplimientos contractuales por parte del Estado.
En el presente artículo se esboza las dos principales “doctrinas jurisprudenciales” o tendencias de lo que implica el análisis de la expropiación indirecta: la expansiva y la restrictiva. Una vez comprendidas las mismas se procederá analizar el caso arbitral Naturgy vs Colombia.
Posiciones conceptuales de la Expropiación Indirecta y consecuencias
Posición expansiva o doctrina de “solo efecto”
La doctrina del “solo efecto” es una línea de la jurisprudencia en el derecho de la inversión internacional que orienta a que en las reclamaciones sobre expropiación indirecta se debería enfocar en la búsqueda de los efectos que la medida sometida a controversia ha tenido sobre la inversión, descartando o restando importancia a factores adicionales tales como la intención del gobierno o del propósito de la medida.
Los orígenes de la doctrina del “solo efecto” se remontan al Norwegian Shipowners’ Claims arbitration. Asimismo, uno de los primeros casos en los que Tribunales Arbitrales se adhirieron a la doctrina del “solo efecto” fueron Siemens v. Argentina, Biwater Gauff v. Tanzania, and Saipem v. Bangladesh.
Vale la pena citar dos casos que grafican la doctrina del “solo efecto”.
El primero, es el caso Tippetts, en el que el Tribunal consideró que hay expropiación “siempre que los hechos demuestran que el propietario fue privado de derechos fundamentales de propiedad y parece que esta privación no es meramente efímera, y que ‘la intención del gobierno es menos importante que los efectos de las medidas sobre el propietario, y la forma de las medidas de control o interferencias carecen de importancia frente a la realidad de su impacto’.
El segundo, el caso Starrett Housing, en el que el Tribunal declaró que hay expropiación indirecta cuando los derechos de propiedad ‘se vuelven tan inútiles que deben considerarse expropiados.
Posición restrictiva o Poder del Estado
Algunos tribunales han optado por comprender que la expropiación indirecta no debe implicar una limitación del poder de policía que tiene el estado para regular aspectos necesarios para lograr su finalidad pública.
Análisis del caso Naturgy vs Colombia
Hechos y contexto del caso
El caso Naturgy vs. Colombia fue una disputa surgida bajo el Acuerdo de Promoción y Protección Recíproca de Inversiones entre Colombia y España del año 2005 (el “TBI”) que surgió producto de la decisión de la Superintendencia de Servicios Públicos (la “SSP”) de intervenir y posteriormente liquidar una compañía llamada Electricaribe. Esta compañía se dedicaba al transporte y distribución de energía que compraba en mercado de energía mayorista y posteriormente vendía a los usuarios finales y consumidores de la región caribe de Colombia. Naturgy, una sociedad española y conocida anteriormente como Gas Natural Fenosa, era propietaria del 85% del capital de Electricaribe, por lo que demandó a Colombia por US$1.311 millones por violaciones a las protecciones del APPRI del trato Justo y equitativo, expropiación, protección y seguridad plenas y trato de la nación más favorecida, relacionadas con la intervención y el presunto desconocimiento de sus compromisos y marco regulatorio.
Para Naturgy, Colombia no cumplió con su legislación del sector eléctrico y desconoció compromisos adquiridos para implementar medidas destinadas a garantizar la viabilidad de Electricaribe. Desde su perspectiva dicha inacción desembocó en problemas financieros para Electricaribe, los cuales fueron aprovechados por el gobierno colombiano para utilizar la intervención como mecanismo expropiatorio de la inversión de Naturgy y para ganar el apoyo político de bancada de congresistas de la costa caribe en la aprobación e implementación del proceso de paz entre Colombia y la guerrilla marxista de las FARC. De esta forma, Naturgy demandó a Colombia en el 2018 y solicitó una indemnización que correspondía principalmente al valor de su participación accionaria en Electricaribe antes de la intervención por parte de la Superintendencia de Servicios Públicos.
Por su parte, Colombia argumentó que la decisión de intervenir Electricaribe se debió a la frágil situación financiera de la compañía que podía afectar la prestación del servicio de energía y electricidad a más de 10 millones de personas que habitaban la región caribe del país. De igual forma, Colombia sostuvo que la precaria situación financiera fue causada exclusivamente por la mala administración de Naturgy y no por el desconocimiento del marco legal o de compromisos adquiridos frente a Electricaribe.
Análisis del Tribunal
Para determinar la existencia de una expropiación indirecta ilegal, el Tribunal constituido bajo el reglamento de la CNUDMI se concentró en determinar si a la luz del TBI y del derecho internacional, la intervención de Electricaribe era o no un uso legítimo de la potestad regulatoria del Estado Colombiano. En el laudo proferido en marzo de 2021 el Tribunal reconoce que el poder de policía es un principio de derecho internacional según el cual los Estados no deben indemnizar a los inversionistas por los daños causados por actos regulatorios de buena fe. Además, reconoce que el poder de policía está reconocido expresamente en el TBI aplicable y que su principal desarrollo legal se encuentra en el laudo de Saluka contra la República Checa. No obstante, reconoce que no hay una línea clara para determinar cuando una expropiación es indemnizable o no. En consecuencia, el Tribunal determina que debe realizarse un análisis caso a caso para definir si el ejercicio de la autoridad regulatoria del Estado fue o no arbitrario o discriminatorio.
El Tribunal consideró que Colombia realizó la intervención con apego al ordenamiento legal vigente, el cual además era el mismo que al momento en que Naturgy adquirió su participación en Electricaribe. Para el Tribunal la intervención había sido llevada de forma legal pues se cumplía con uno de los supuestos establecidos para tal efecto, a saber, el incumplimiento de obligaciones y más específicamente el incumplimiento de obligaciones financieras relativas a la compra de energía en el mercado de energía.
Asimismo, el Tribunal determinó que la intervención tuvo como fin mitigar los riesgos derivados de los incumplimientos de Electricaribe los cuales eran el riesgo sistémico y los recortes de energía. Por un lado, el riesgo sistémico se derivan de la importancia de Electricaribe en el mercado de energía ya que al representar el 25% de la demanda de energía en Colombia, el incumplimiento de sus obligaciones podría causar un efecto dominó que podía afectar tanto al consumidor final como al sector financiero que garantiza un porcentaje importante de las operaciones de energía. Por su parte, los recortes de energía serían producto de procedimientos de limitación de suministro de energía que son procesos regulatorios que se activan cuando un distribuidor del mercado de energía incumple las obligaciones relacionadas con la bolsa de energía, contratos de compra de energía o no presenta garantías bancarias. Como su nombre lo indica, estos procedimientos reducen el suministro de energía al distribuidor incumplido y resultan en apagones programados que podían afectar a los usuarios finales del servicio, quienes en el caso de Electricaribe eran los habitantes de la región caribe de Colombia.
Pese a que GN cuestionó la existencia y gravedad de esos riesgos, el Tribunal destacó que su rol no es cuestionar ex post la toma de decisiones de la SSP y determinar si existían o no justificaciones suficientes para intervenir a Electricaribe. Por el contrario, el Tribunal sólo debía limitarse a revisar: (i) si la intervención era una facultad estatal establecida en el ordenamiento jurídico colombiano y (ii) que intervención se encontrara razonablemente respaldada con pruebas disponibles para el momento en que se tomó la decisión de llevarla a cabo. En consecuencia, como la SSP basó su decisión de intervenir Electricaribe en un número considerable de pruebas que demostraban que Electricaribe no podía cumplir con sus obligaciones financieras -hecho que además fue posteriormente confirmado en audiencia por el Tribunal a partir del testimonio del presidente de Electricaribe-, era posible inferir que existía cierto grado de riesgo para la prestación del servicio público de suministro de energía a los habitantes de la costa caribe colombiana. De esta forma el Tribunal concluyó que la intervención fue un acto de buena fe que era permitido por el marco regulatorio colombiano y, por lo tanto, no era indemnizable a la luz de la doctrina de poderes de policía.
Conclusiones Finales
El concepto de Expropiación Indirecta se encuentra regulado en cada legislación internacional (TBIs) de forma dispersa, sin un criterio homogéneo con la única finalidad de proteger la inversión extranjera. De igual forma, la doctrina no ha logrado conceptualizar dicha figura con uniformidad y consenso.
Los mismos tribunales arbitrales reconocen que el análisis de si un evento configura o no una expropiación indirecta impone la necesidad de hacerlo caso por caso, por lo que no existe una estándar homogéneo de requisitos o condiciones exigidas para su constitución y correspondiente indemnización.
En el caso bajo análisis, el Tribunal confirma la necesidad de analizar la expropiación indirecta de los hechos y sus particularidades específicas, así pues pasa por evaluar si la intervención de Electricaribe devino de un uso legítimo de la potestad regulatoria del Estado Colombiano o la medida implicó una ilegalidad, llegando a la conclusió de que no le corresponde a los tribunales de inversión evaluar las decisiones regulatorias de fondo de los órganos estatales.
Entonces, redujo el análisis al poder de policía o posición restrictiva de lo que es una Expropiación indirecta, concluyendo que la inversión no es un seguro que cubre los riesgos de los inversionistas negligentes y que el Poder Policía de cada estado puede ser ejercido
Por lo tanto, la posición del solo efecto ha sido reevaluada por la posición mayoritaria de la doctrina y hoy en día se adopta la teoría de los poderes de policía, priorizando su legitimidad y evitando que se encuentre dentro de un trato no igualitario.
Autores:
Sergio Tellez
Asociado en Suescún Abogados, abogado por la Universidad de Los Andes, especialista en Contratación Internacional por la Universidad Externado de Colombia.
Renzo Ruiz
Abogado y Master en Gerencia Pública, especialista en Proyectos de Infraestructura y Solución de Controversias, profesor de Derecho Público, Estructuración Financiera de Proyectos y Arbitraje.
Sherin Limas
Asociada a DLA Piper Perú, experta en resolución alternativa de disputas y reclamos de construcción, práctica enfocada en litigios arbitrales de asuntos complejos de construcción.
Óscar Obando
Abogado por la Universidad Hemisferios, Especialista en Derecho Procesal y candidato a Magister por la Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar. Ejerce como abogado y mediador en libre ejercicio, sus áreas de práctica son Derecho Corporativo, Arbitraje y Administrativo, ejerce también como Director de Proyectos Deportivos, encargado de la elaboración y ejecución de estos.
Bibliografía
Amado, José Daniel y Amiel, Bruno La expropiación indirecta y la protección de inversiones extranjeras. Revista Themis (2014)
Faya, Alejandro ¿Cómo Se Determina Una Expropiación Indirecta Bajo Tratados Internacionales En Materia De Inversión? Un Análisis Contemporáneo. México (2013)
Eaton, J., & Gersovitz, M. A Theory of Expropriation and Deviations from Perfect Capital Mobility. The Economic Journal, 94(373), 16-40. doi:10.2307/2232213
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